| dc.identifier.citation | Backes, C. and Abdelkader, A.M. and Alonso, C. and Andrieux-Ledier, A. and Arenal, R. and Azpeitia, J. and Balakrishnan, N. and Banszerus, L. and Barjon, J. and Bartali, R. and Bellani, S. and Berger, C. and Berger, R. and Ortega, M.M.B. and Bernard, C. and Beton, P.H. and Beyer, A. and Bianco, A. and Bÿggild, P. and Bonaccorso, F. and Barin, G.B. and Botas, C. and Bueno, R.A. and Carriazo, D. and Castellanos-Gomez, A. and Christian, M. and Ciesielski, A. and Ciuk, T. and Cole, M.T. and Coleman, J. and Coletti, C. and Crema, L. and Cun, H. and Dasler, D. and De Fazio, D. and DÃez, N. and Drieschner, S. and Duesberg, G.S. and Fasel, R. and Feng, X. and Fina, A. and Forti, S. and Galiotis, C. and Garberoglio, G. and GarcÃa, J.M. and Garrido, J.A. and Gibertini, M. and Gölzhÿuser, A. and Gómez, J. and Greber, T. and Hauke, F. and Hemmi, A. and Hernandez-Rodriguez, I. and Hirsch, A. and Hodge, S.A. and Huttel, Y. and Jepsen, P.U. and Jimenez, I. and Kaiser, U. and Kaplas, T. and Kim, H. and Kis, A. and Papagelis, K. and Kostarelos, K. and Krajewska, A. and Lee, K. and Li, C. and Lipsanen, H. and Liscio, A. and Lohe, M.R. and Loiseau, A. and Lombardi, L. and López, M.F. and Martin, O. and MartÃn, C. and MartÃnez, L. and Martin-Gago, J.A. and MartÃnez, J.I. and Marzari, N. and Mayoral, A. and McManus, J. and Melucci, M. and Méndez, J. and Merino, C. and Merino, P. and Meyer, A.P. and Miniussi, E. and Miseikis, V. and Mishra, N. and Morandi, V. and Munuera, C. and Muñoz, R. and Nolan, H. and Ortolani, L. and Ott, A.K. and Palacio, I. and Palermo, V. and Parthenios, J. and Pasternak, I. and Patane, A. and Prato, M. and Prevost, H. and Prudkovskiy, V. and Pugno, N. and Rojo, T. and Rossi, A. and Ruffieux, P. and Samorì, P. and Schué, L. and Setijadi, E. and Seyller, T. and Speranza, G. and Stampfer, C. and Stenger, I. and Strupinski, W. and Svirko, Y. and Taioli, S. and Teo, K.B.K. and Testi, M. and Tomarchio, F. and Tortello, M. and Treossi, E. and Turchanin, A. and Vazquez, E. and Villaro, E. and Whelan, P.R. and Xia, Z. and Yakimova, R. and Yang, S. and Yazdi, G.R. and Yim, C. and Yoon, D. and Zhang, X. and Zhuang, X. and Colombo, L. and Ferrari, A.C. and Garcia-Hernandez, M., Production and processing of graphene and related materials, 2D Materials, 7, 2, 2020 | en |
| dc.description.abstract | We present an overview of the main techniques for production and processing of graphene and related materials (GRMs), as well as the key characterization procedures. We adopt a 'hands-on' approach, providing practical details and procedures as derived from literature as well as from the authors' experience, in order to enable the reader to reproduce the results.
Section I is devoted to 'bottom up' approaches, whereby individual constituents are pieced together into more complex structures. We consider graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) produced either by solution processing or by on-surface synthesis in ultra high vacuum (UHV), as well carbon nanomembranes (CNM). Production of a variety of GNRs with tailored band gaps and edge shapes is now possible. CNMs can be tuned in terms of porosity, crystallinity and electronic behaviour.
Section II covers 'top down' techniques. These rely on breaking down of a layered precursor, in the graphene case usually natural crystals like graphite or artificially synthesized materials, such as highly oriented pyrolythic graphite, monolayers or few layers (FL) flakes. The main focus of this section is on various exfoliation techniques in a liquid media, either intercalation or liquid phase exfoliation (LPE). The choice of precursor, exfoliation method, medium as well as the control of parameters such as time or temperature are crucial. A definite choice of parameters and conditions yields a particular material with specific properties that makes it more suitable for a targeted application. We cover protocols for the graphitic precursors to graphene oxide (GO). This is an important material for a range of applications in biomedicine, energy storage, nanocomposites, etc. Hummers' and modified Hummers' methods are used to make GO that subsequently can be reduced to obtain reduced graphene oxide (RGO) with a variety of strategies. GO flakes are also employed to prepare three-dimensional (3d) low density structures, such as sponges, foams, hydro- or aerogels. The assembly of flakes into 3d structures can provide improved mechanical properties. Aerogels with a highly open structure, with interconnected hierarchical pores, can enhance the accessibility to the whole surface area, as relevant for a number of applications, such as energy storage. The main recipes to yield graphite intercalation compounds (GICs) are also discussed. GICs are suitable precursors for covalent functionalization of graphene, but can also be used for the synthesis of uncharged graphene in solution. Degradation of the molecules intercalated in GICs can be triggered by high temperature treatment or microwave irradiation, creating a gas pressure surge in graphite and exfoliation. Electrochemical exfoliation by applying a voltage in an electrolyte to a graphite electrode can be tuned by varying precursors, electrolytes and potential. Graphite electrodes can be either negatively or positively intercalated to obtain GICs that are subsequently exfoliated. We also discuss the materials that can be amenable to exfoliation, by employing a theoretical data-mining approach. | en |
